DC Circuit Fundamentals
📌 In DC circuits, the resistor resists current flow, often converting excess power to heat (e.g., in LED circuits).
🔋 Capacitors and inductors act as energy storage elements, smoothing output voltage (capacitor resists voltage change) or current (inductor resists current change).
⚡ Resistors affect DC current flow, while inductors and capacitors generally do not influence steady DC current unless switching states are involved.

Impedance in AC Circuits
🌊 Impedance is the concept of resistance extended to AC circuits, where inductors and capacitors become significant factors.
📐 For an inductor, voltage leads the current by a phase shift of approximately 90 degrees, and the inductive reactance ($X_L = 2 \pi f L$) increases as frequency ($f$) increases.
📉 For a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by approximately 90 degrees, and the capacitive reactance ($X_C = 1 / (2 \pi f C)$) decreases as frequency increases.
🚫 A plain resistor exhibits ohmic resistance that is independent of AC frequency and introduces no phase shift.

Complex Impedance Calculation
📐 When combining R, $L$, and $C$ in series in an AC circuit, values cannot be simply added; the solution is to use complex impedance ($Z$).
📈 Impedance in Cartesian form is represented as $Z = R + jX$, where $R$ is the real resistance and $jX$ is the imaginary reactance (positive for inductance, negative for capacitance in standard convention).
📐 The magnitude of impedance ($|Z|$) is calculated as $\sqrt{R^2 + X^2}$, and the phase angle ($\phi$) is $\arctan(X/R)$.
🧪 Practical components possess parasitic elements like Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) and Equivalent Series Inductance (ESL), meaning complex impedance exists even in seemingly pure components like capacitors.

Key Points & Insights
➡️ Impedance unifies the effects of resistance, inductance, and capacitance in AC circuits, addressing both magnitude changes and phase shifts between voltage and current.
➡️ Inductive reactance ($X_L$) increases with frequency ($f$), whereas capacitive reactance ($X_C$) decreases with frequency.
➡️ Complex impedance calculation requires separating components into real (resistance) and imaginary (reactance) parts on a complex plane, using trigonometry to find the resultant impedance magnitude and phase angle.

📸 Video summarized with SummaryTube.com on Nov 20, 2025, 09:14 UTC