Bond Valuation Fundamentals (Continuation)
📌 The value of a bond is calculated by discounting two cash flows: the regular coupon payments (treated as an annuity) and the Face Value (lump sum) received at maturity.
📉 The market price of a bond moves inversely to the market interest rate (discount rate); when the discount rate rises, the bond's value decreases, and vice versa.
⚖️ If a bond's Coupon Rate > Market Interest Rate, the bond sells at a premium (above Par Value); if Coupon Rate < Market Interest Rate, it sells at a discount (below Par Value).

Semi-Annual Coupon Adjustments
📅 For bonds paying coupons semi-annually, the total number of discount periods ($N$) is doubled ($Years \times 2$), and the annual coupon amount is halved ($Coupon / 2$) for each period's calculation.
📊 The market interest rate acts as the opportunity cost and is used as the discount rate for calculating the bond's present value.

Interest Rate Risk and Bond Characteristics
⬆️ Interest Rate Risk (price fluctuation due to changing rates) is higher for bonds with a longer maturity period because they have more discount periods affected by rate changes.
⬇️ Bonds with a lower coupon are riskier than higher coupon bonds because a larger proportion of the total return is received later in the bond's life.

Yield to Maturity (YTM) Calculation
🔍 Yield to Maturity (YTM) is the internal rate of return (IRR) if the bond is held until maturity, essentially solving for the discount rate ($r$) that equates the bond's market price to the present value of its future cash flows.
🧮 Calculating YTM requires trial and error (or financial calculators/software) using the bond valuation formula, using the relationship between coupon rate and market price (discount vs. premium) to narrow down the starting estimate for $r$.

Debt vs. Equity Comparison
🚫 Debt (Bonds) does not represent ownership interest, and creditors generally lack voting power, unlike equity holders.
💰 Interest payments on debt are a tax-deductible expense for the corporation, lowering taxable income, whereas dividends paid to equity holders are not tax-deductible.
🏛️ Failure to pay debt obligations (interest or principal) can lead to legal action and potential bankruptcy for the firm, an obligation not shared by equity issuance.

Long-Term Debt Instruments and Features
🗓️ Long-term debt is generally defined as loans with a maturity period greater than one year; common forms include Notes (up to 10 years), Bonds, and Debentures.
🔗 An unsecured bond (no claim against specific assets) is specifically known as a Debenture.
🔄 A Sinking Fund is a mechanism where the issuer periodically deposits funds, often managed by a third-party trustee (like a bank), for the eventual repayment of the principal.
⏳ Call Provision allows the issuer to redeem the bond before maturity; bonds with a call feature often start with a deferred call period and are typically callable at a premium to the Par Value initially.

Hybrid Securities
⭐ Hybrid securities, such as Perpetual Bonds (Consols) that never mature, combine features of both debt (tax-deductible interest payments) and equity (no repayment pressure/principal default risk).

Key Points & Insights
➡️ Bond valuation requires treating coupons as an annuity and face value as a lump sum, both discounted by the market interest rate ($r$).
➡️ If the bond is selling at a discount (Price < \$1000), the YTM must be greater than the Coupon Rate; start estimating $r$ above the coupon rate.
➡️ The most significant risks associated with interest rate changes are driven by Maturity (longer is riskier) and Coupon Size (lower is riskier).

📸 Video summarized with SummaryTube.com on Jan 17, 2026, 12:27 UTC